Europe

Continent on Earth

Earth

Introduction

Europe is a continent entirely in the Northern Hemisphere and mostly in the Eastern Hemisphere, commonly defined by a combination of natural geographical boundaries. To the north, it is bordered by the Arctic Ocean; to the west by the Atlantic Ocean; and to the south by the Mediterranean Sea. The conventional eastern boundary with Asia follows the Ural Mountains, the Ural River, and the Caspian Sea; further south, the separation continues along the Caucasus Mountains, the Black Sea, and the Bosporus Strait.

Europe shares its landmass with Asia as part of Eurasia, and with both Asia and Africa as part of Afro-Eurasia. Today, the European Union (EU), a supranational political entity, includes most European countries, with shared features like the euro, single market and Schengen Area, forming one of the world’s largest economies.

Area (km² / sq mi)	10,186,000 / 3,933,000
Population	745,173,774 (2021)

History of Europe

Throughout the long Pleistocene era, Europe experienced repeated glaciations, with alternating cold and warmer intervals shaping both the landscape and the movement of early human groups. Among the earliest humans in Europe were Homo erectus georgicus, appearing nearly 1.8 million years ago in Georgia, followed by Neanderthals, who roamed much of the continent until vanishing around 40,000 years ago. Modern Homo sapiens entered the scene at least 48,000 years ago, as shown by archaeological finds in Italy, Germany, and France. As the Neolithic age took hold around 7000 BCE—spreading from the Balkans and Greece—Europe saw the emergence of agriculture, permanent settlements, and ceramics.

Distinct cultures such as the Linear Pottery and Cardial cultures began shaping early European society, and over time these communities developed skills in metalworking, evident in the production of copper artifacts and the building of megalithic structures like Stonehenge. By the Bronze Age, starting in Crete around 3200 BCE with the Minoans, three key ancestral groups had shaped Europe: hunter-gatherers from the Epigravettian culture, Anatolian farmers, and Yamnaya herders from the steppe. The subsequent Iron Age was marked by new city-states and Greek and Phoenician colonization, culminating in what is considered Classical Antiquity, beginning with the first Olympic Games in 776 BCE.

Ancient Greece laid the foundation for Western civilisation, developing forms of democracy, philosophy, and science that would deeply influence future societies. The polis, or city-state, dominated the Greek political landscape, with Athens establishing a pioneering democratic system in 508 BCE. Key Greek thinkers—Plato, Aristotle, and Hippocrates—shaped various disciplines, while military resistance against the Persians marked the Golden Age of Athens, a fertile period for arts and culture.

Greece’s influence was followed by that of Rome, whose expansion brought law, engineering, and Latin across Europe. From central Italy, the Romans extended their reach, forming a vast empire by the first century BCE. Under Augustus, the Republic transitioned into the Empire, ushering in the pax romana, a long stretch of stability. In 313 CE, Christianity gained legal status under Constantine, who moved the capital to Constantinople. By the late 4th century, Christianity had become the official state religion, while paganism was suppressed.

Despite later decline in the West, the Byzantine Empire preserved Roman heritage and remained a major power. As new forces like Islamic caliphates emerged and conquered parts of the former Roman world, Europe entered the Early Middle Ages, an era shaped by migrations, monastic scholarship, and shifting powers, setting the stage for medieval Europe.

The Renaissance, beginning in 14th-century Florence, marked a profound cultural rebirth across Europe that revived classical Greek and Arabic knowledge, often rediscovered from monastic archives and translated into Latin. This era saw an extraordinary outpouring of achievements in art, science, philosophy, and music, heavily supported by influential patrons like the Medici family and the Catholic Church. Meanwhile, political instability shook the Catholic Church, notably during the Western Schism, when rival popes contested authority.

The 15th century also ushered in the Age of Discovery, led by maritime powers Spain and Portugal, who explored new territories across the Atlantic, Africa, and Asia. Landmark voyages by explorers such as Columbus, da Gama, and Magellan expanded European influence globally, leading to vast colonial empires. However, the Church’s grip weakened further with the onset of the Reformation initiated by Martin Luther’s 1517 theses, which fractured religious unity and provoked widespread conflict, including the devastating Thirty Years’ War. By the late 17th century, with the rise of France and the defeat of the Ottomans at Vienna, Europe’s political and religious landscapes had been dramatically transformed.

The 18th and 19th centuries brought about sweeping changes fueled by the Enlightenment’s emphasis on reason and science, sparking political upheavals such as the French Revolution and the rise of Napoleon Bonaparte, whose conquests spread revolutionary ideals across Europe. The Congress of Vienna later established a delicate balance of power among major states that persisted until the mid-19th century revolutions. Simultaneously, the decline of the Ottoman Empire prompted nationalistic movements in the Balkans, reshaping regional borders.

The Industrial Revolution, originating in Britain, revolutionized production methods, urbanization, and society, causing population growth and migration on an unprecedented scale. By the early 20th century, Europe had undergone rapid modernization but also faced rising tensions that erupted into two world wars, the first triggered by the assassination of Archduke Franz Ferdinand. The aftermath of these conflicts saw the collapse of empires, the rise of communism in Russia, and significant geopolitical realignments, setting the stage for the modern era.

Geografy of Europe

Europe occupies the western portion of the Eurasian landmass and features the highest coastline-to-land ratio among continents. It is bordered by the Arctic Ocean to the north, the Atlantic Ocean to the west, and the Mediterranean, Black, and Caspian Seas to the south. The continent’s landscape is highly varied despite its size: Southern Europe is dominated by mountain ranges like the Alps and Pyrenees, while northern Europe consists mostly of vast plains, including the Great European Plain centered on the North German Plain. Additionally, an upland arc runs along the northwestern coast, spanning parts of Britain, Ireland, and Norway.

Europe’s climate is predominantly temperate, heavily influenced by the Gulf Stream, which carries warm Atlantic waters that moderate temperatures across the continent. This current makes Europe’s weather milder and wetter than other regions at similar latitudes, such as North America and Siberia. The Mediterranean Sea also plays a role by equalizing temperatures in Southern Europe. Generally, the climate cools from south to north and from west to east, with Western Europe experiencing more oceanic conditions compared to the drier eastern regions.

The continent’s natural vegetation is mainly mixed forests, which thrive under favorable growing conditions supported by the Gulf Stream and varied mountain geography. Historically, much of Europe was forested, but centuries of deforestation have reduced these areas significantly. Today, forests cover about a quarter of Europe’s land, with extensive conifer plantations replacing original mixed forests in some regions. The forest types vary widely, from broadleaf and mixed forests in Eastern Europe to taiga and tundra in the north, and scrub forests and olive groves in the Mediterranean basin.

Europe’s animal life has been heavily shaped by human activity and climatic changes. Many large predators like wolves and bears have been pushed to the margins, now mainly inhabiting remote forests and mountains in the Balkans, Scandinavia, and Russia. Some species, such as the European bison, survive only in protected reserves. Smaller mammals, birds, reptiles, and insects contribute to the biodiversity, along with marine life including phytoplankton, fish, dolphins, and whales. Biodiversity protection efforts in Europe are coordinated through international agreements like the Bern Convention.

Climate

Europe is located mainly in the temperate zone of the Northern Hemisphere, with prevailing winds generally coming from the west. Its climate is relatively mild for its latitude because of the Gulf Stream, which transports warm water from the Gulf of Mexico across the Atlantic. This ocean current also warms the westerly winds, making much of Europe warmer and wetter than other regions at similar latitudes.

The moderating effect of the Atlantic is particularly evident when Europe is compared with other parts of the world. For example, Aveiro in Portugal has an average annual temperature of about 16 °C (61 °F), while New York City, at a similar latitude, averages only 13 °C (55 °F). Continental locations at comparable latitudes can be even colder, especially during winter, highlighting Europe’s relatively mild conditions.

The Mediterranean Sea also plays an important role, particularly in Southern Europe. Its large volume of water helps reduce temperature fluctuations between seasons and between day and night. The Mediterranean’s climatic influence reaches far northward through the Adriatic Sea, extending towards the Alpine region near Trieste.

Overall, Europe’s climate generally becomes colder from south to north and from west to east. Western areas are strongly influenced by the Atlantic Ocean and therefore have a more oceanic climate, while eastern regions experience increasingly continental conditions, with greater temperature differences throughout the year.

Society in Europe

Demography

Europe is home to slightly more than one ninth of the world’s population and has the second-highest population density of any continent, after Asia. However, its population is gradually shrinking, mainly because deaths outnumber births. This natural decline is partly offset by immigration, as Europe receives more migrants from other continents than the number of Europeans moving abroad.

Europe is also characterized by a high degree of population ageing, particularly in Southern and Western Europe. In 2021, people aged over 65 accounted for around 21% of the population in both regions, compared with 19% for Europe as a whole and only 10% globally. This trend is expected to intensify, with the elderly potentially representing about 30% of Europe’s population by 2050, reflecting decades of below-replacement fertility.

Fertility remains low across much of the continent, averaging approximately 1.52 children per woman, well below the level required to maintain a stable population. If current immigration patterns remain unchanged, the United Nations projects that Europe could experience a population decline of around 7% between 2022 and 2050, reaching roughly 680–720 million inhabitants. The most significant decreases are expected in Eastern Europe, where low birth rates are further reinforced by emigration.

Languages

Europe has around 225 indigenous languages, most of which belong to the Indo-European family. Its three main groups are Romance, Germanic, and Slavic languages, mainly distributed across Western, Northern, Southern and Eastern Europe. Other Indo-European branches include Baltic, Celtic, Greek, Armenian and Albanian. Several non-Indo-European families are also present. Uralic languages, such as Finnish, Estonian and Hungarian, are mainly found in Northern and Eastern Europe, while Turkic languages are spoken mostly in Eastern and Southeastern Europe.

The Caucasus has further linguistic diversity, including Kartvelian and Caucasian languages. Maltese is the only Semitic language that is official in the European Union, while Basque is Europe’s main language isolate. Multilingualism and the protection of regional and minority languages are also important European policy goals, supported by legal frameworks established by the Council of Europe.

Religions

Christianity is the predominant religion in Europe, followed by about 76% of the population. The main traditions are Catholicism, Eastern Orthodoxy and Protestantism. Christianity has strongly influenced European culture and identity since becoming the official religion of the Roman Empire in the late 4th century.

Islam is the second-largest religion, with around 5% of Europeans being Muslim. It is the majority faith in Albania, Bosnia and Herzegovina, Turkey, Azerbaijan and Kazakhstan, as well as in some parts of Russia, while substantial Muslim communities also exist elsewhere in Europe.

Judaism has a long history on the continent, although its population was drastically reduced by the Holocaust. Today, France has Europe’s largest Jewish community, followed by the United Kingdom, Germany and Russia. Other minority religions include Hinduism and Buddhism, with Tibetan Buddhism being predominant in Russia’s Kalmykia. At the same time, irreligion, atheism and agnosticism are widespread and increasingly common, together accounting for around 18% of Europe’s population.

Economy of Europe

Europe has one of the world‘s largest and wealthiest economies, although there are substantial economic differences between countries. The most prosperous economies are generally concentrated in Northern and Western Europe, while many countries in the East and South are still developing after the economic disruptions caused by the collapse of the Soviet Union and Yugoslavia.

Economic activity is strongly concentrated along major European industrial and commercial corridors, historically represented by models such as the Blue Banana. Trade between Europe, Asia and other regions expanded significantly after 1989, while newer connections, including China’s Belt and Road Initiative, have further strengthened international trade routes.

The European Union, made up of 27 countries, forms one of the world’s largest integrated economic areas. Most EU members use the euro, which is also adopted by several non-EU countries. Major European economies include Russia, Germany, France and the United Kingdom, while wealth per person varies considerably across the continent, with Monaco among the richest and Ukraine among the poorest.

Culture of Europe

Europe’s cultural identity is deeply rooted in the fusion of various traditions and influences that have shaped its evolution over centuries. The Renaissance, for example, marked a major cultural movement that spanned across the continent, blending classical ideas from ancient Greece and Rome with contemporary artistic and intellectual developments. This period witnessed the flourishing of arts, sciences, and philosophy, with cities such as Florence, Venice, and Paris becoming centers of innovation.

Moreover, the Enlightenment brought forward ideas that challenged traditional authorities and promoted individual rights and scientific reasoning, which would later influence European political and social structures. As Europe continued to evolve, its cultural mosaic grew even more complex through the expansion of empires, trade, and migration, bringing diverse languages, religions, and customs into constant interaction.

Cuisine of Europe

European cuisine, often referred to as Continental cuisine, encompasses the traditional culinary styles found across the many countries of Europe. Despite the wide variety of regional dishes, there are certain shared traits that distinguish European cooking from other global food traditions.

History

During the Middle Ages, European diets differed greatly according to social class, although cereals and bread were fundamental for almost everyone. Wealthier people had access to flour, fresh meat, fish and expensive spices such as pepper, cinnamon, ginger and saffron, as well as sugar, almonds and dried fruit. Elaborate and colorful dishes were often prepared for banquets to display wealth and status. By contrast, peasants relied mainly on locally produced foods, including rye or barley bread, vegetables, dairy products and simple stews known as pottage. Meat was less common and usually consisted of pork, beef or lamb, while preservation through salting, pickling and drying was widespread.

During the Early Modern period (16th–19th centuries), European cuisine combined medieval traditions with major new influences. The discovery of the Americas, expanding trade with Asia and stronger connections with Africa and the Middle East introduced ingredients such as potatoes, maize, tomatoes, chili peppers, cocoa, vanilla, coffee and tea. At the same time, previously rare spices became increasingly accessible.

Growing prosperity gradually influenced eating habits across different social groups, although class distinctions remained significant. Food was still strongly connected to seasonality and to traditional medical ideas based on the four humours, which classified foods according to their supposed heating, cooling, moistening or drying effects. The idea of distinct national cuisines developed only later, particularly during the 19th century.

Common ingredients

Unlike many East Asian cuisines, meat tends to be a more dominant and generous part of the meal. The use of dairy products is also extensive, with a vast array of cheeses and other fermented milk-based items being common staples. Historically, the majority of people consumed different kinds of bread—mainly made from grains such as rye, spelt, barley, and oats—while wealthier individuals had access to more refined foods like pasta and dumplings.

The introduction of the potato greatly influenced the European diet after the discovery of the Americas, becoming one of the key sources of carbohydrates. While corn is less prevalent in most European meals compared to the Americas, it remains important in dishes such as polenta in Italy and certain Balkan countries. Although flour based foods topped with ingredients, like pizza or tarte flambée, and rice are consumed, they serve as staples mainly in southern regions. Additionally, salads featuring raw or cooked vegetables, sometimes accompanied by dressings, play an important role in European cuisine.

Culinary traditions and customs

Traditional European dining is structured around distinct courses served one after the other. The earlier French custom, service à la française, involved placing many dishes on the table simultaneously, but this evolved into service à la russe, where food is presented sequentially. Meals typically start with cold starters or soups, followed by hot savory dishes for the main course, and conclude with a sweet dessert. While the combination of sweet and savory flavors was common in ancient Roman cooking, nowadays sweets are generally reserved for the final course. A buffet style, where guests serve themselves, is usually limited to festive events, but even then, the usual order of eating is observed.

The roots of European cuisine are closely tied to the dining habits of royalty and the nobility, who often lived in rural estates and carried weapons. The knife was the primary eating utensil, suitable for cutting substantial portions such as steaks. This contrasts with East Asian traditions, where rulers were often officials who ate food already prepared in bite-sized pieces with chopsticks. Over time, the spoon gained popularity for eating soups, and the fork was gradually adopted starting in the 16th century during the early modern era. Nowadays, the use of cutlery is standard for most European meals, with only a few finger foods considered acceptable to eat by hand in formal settings.

Political division of Europe

Politically, Europe comprises countries located entirely or predominantly within it and transcontinental countries with territory in the region. For the first group, any autonomous regions, dependencies, overseas territories, or other constituent territories are shown in parentheses and divided between those within and outside the region

Countries located entirely or predominantly in Europe:

• Albania 🇦🇱
• Andorra 🇦🇩
• Austria 🇦🇹
• Belarus 🇧🇾
• Belgium 🇧🇪
• Bosnia and Herzegovina 🇧🇦
• Bulgaria 🇧🇬
• Croatia 🇭🇷
• Cyprus 🇨🇾
• Czech Republic 🇨🇿
• Denmark 🇩🇰 (Inside Europe: Faroe Islands 🇫🇴; Outside Europe: Greenland 🇬🇱)
• Estonia 🇪🇪
• Finland 🇫🇮 (Inside Europe: Åland 🇦🇽)
• France 🇫🇷 (Outside Europe: Clipperton Island 🇫🇷, French Guiana 🇬🇫, French Polynesia 🇵🇫, French Southern and Antarctic Lands 🇹🇫, Guadeloupe 🇬🇵, Martinique 🇲🇶, Mayotte 🇾🇹, New Caledonia 🇳🇨, Saint Barthélemy 🇧🇱, Saint Martin 🇲🇫, Saint Pierre and Miquelon 🇵🇲, Wallis and Futuna 🇼🇫)
• Germany 🇩🇪
• Greece 🇬🇷
• Hungary 🇭🇺
• Iceland 🇮🇸
• Ireland 🇮🇪
• Italy 🇮🇹
• Latvia 🇱🇻
• Liechtenstein 🇱🇮
• Lithuania 🇱🇹
• Luxembourg 🇱🇺
• Malta 🇲🇹
• Moldova 🇲🇩
• Monaco 🇲🇨
• Montenegro 🇲🇪
• Netherlands 🇳🇱 (Outside Europe: Aruba 🇦🇼, Bonaire 🇧🇶, Curaçao 🇨🇼, Saba 🇧🇶, Sint Eustatius 🇧🇶, Sint Maarten 🇸🇽)
• North Macedonia 🇲🇰
• Norway 🇳🇴 (Inside Europe: Jan Mayen, Svalbard 🇸🇯)
• Poland 🇵🇱
• Portugal 🇵🇹 (Inside Europe: Azores, Madeira)
• Romania 🇷🇴
• San Marino 🇸🇲
• Serbia 🇷🇸
• Slovakia 🇸🇰
• Slovenia 🇸🇮
• Spain 🇪🇸 (Outside Europe: Canary Islands 🇮🇨, Ceuta, Melilla)
• Sweden 🇸🇪
• Switzerland 🇨🇭
• Ukraine 🇺🇦
• United Kingdom 🇬🇧 (Inside Europe: Akrotiri and Dhekelia 🇬🇧, Gibraltar 🇬🇮, Guernsey 🇬🇬, Isle of Man 🇮🇲, Jersey 🇯🇪; Outside Europe: Anguilla 🇦🇮, Bermuda 🇧🇲, British Antarctic Territory 🇬🇧, British Indian Ocean Territory 🇬🇧, British Virgin Islands 🇻🇬, Cayman Islands 🇰🇾, Falkland Islands 🇫🇰, Montserrat 🇲🇸, Pitcairn Islands 🇵🇳, Saint Helena, Ascension and Tristan da Cunha 🇸🇭, South Georgia and the South Sandwich Islands 🇬🇸, Turks and Caicos Islands 🇹🇨)
• Vatican City 🇻🇦

Transcontinental countries:

• Armenia 🇦🇲
• Azerbaijan 🇦🇿
• Georgia 🇬🇪
• Kazakistan 🇰🇿
• Russia 🇷🇺
• Turkey 🇹🇷

Geo-cultural divisions of Europe

Europe can be divided into geo-cultural regions according to two main classification systems: one based primarily on geographical criteria and the other on cultural characteristics. Although they follow different approaches, the two systems broadly overlap, and the geographical regions can generally be subdivided into the same cultural regions listed below. The latter can therefore be regarded, approximately, as subregions of the former, despite some differences in their boundaries.

Geographical regions (several classification systems exist; here, the UN geoscheme is used):

• Eastern Europe
• Northern Europe
• Southern Europe
• Western Europe

Cultural regions (some areas may overlap, as they can belong to more than one cultural region):

• Alpine region
• Balkan or Greco-Balkan region
• Baltic region
• Benelux region
• British or British Isles region
• Carpatho-Danubian or Central-Eastern region
• French region (no separate pages are created for this region, as it essentially corresponds to Metropolitan France plus Monaco)
• Germanic region (no separate pages are created for this region, as it essentially corresponds to Germany)
• Iberian region
• Italian region
• Nordic or Finno-Scandinavian region
• Sarmatian region

Traditional recipes of Europe

(Only recipes unique to the area or strongly associated with it and rarely found elsewhere are included)

Traditional products of Europe

(Only products unique to the area or strongly associated with it and rarely found elsewhere are included)

Recipes commonly prepared in Europe

(Only products specific to this territorial level, and not already covered at a broader administrative or geocultural level, are included)

Products commonly consumed in Europe

(Only recipes specific to this territorial level, and not already covered at a broader administrative or geocultural level, are included)

Carrots

Common beans

Common thyme

European edible frog

Garden asparagus

Leeks

Malts

Western carrots